A Peace Process Instrument in a Climate Crisis: Conflict, Climate Displacement, and BARMM.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1285/i20356609v19n3p843-861Keywords:
Climate (Im)mobilities, climate displacement, Philippines, subnational politicsAbstract
In an area that has witnessed decades of insurgency and armed conflict, it is impossible to separate conflict-related displacement from environmental and climate-related immobilities. The Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM), an autonomous subnational unit, has historically been one of the poorest regions in the Philippines. It is home to a decades-long conflict and has been subjected to various versions of the peace process. In the latest peace process, the Bangsamoro government was enacted through the 2018 Organic Law for the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. In 2024, the Bangsamoro Parliament passed the Rights of Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region Act of 2024. The law is an instrument of transitional justice: adopting a rights-based approach in respecting, protecting and promoting the rights of IDPs. While environmental degradation and climate-related disasters are only small portions of the law, BARMM and the law serve as a model for the intersectionality of displacement, particularly with armed conflict, and how climate considerations will only grow in the future.
References
Akbar S., S.K. Singh, S. Kanga (2024), "Human-induced Disasters", in S. Akbar, S.K. Singh and S. Kanga (eds), Disaster Management, Wiley. Retrieved May 26, 2026 (https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394317004.ch3).
Bangsamoro Information Office (2025), BARMM’s IDP law moves from policy to protection: What’s next for displaced communities?, 7 March. Retrieved October 16, 2026 (https://bangsamoro.gov.ph/news/latest-news/barmms-idp-law-moves-from-policy-to-protection-whats-next-for-displaced-communities/).
Bangsamoro Parliament (2022), ‘PBBM vows support for BARMM’s peace process’, 15 September. Re-trieved May 20, 2026. (https://parliament.bangsamoro.gov.ph/2022/09/15/pbbm-vows-support-for-barmms-peace-process/).
Bangsamoro Parliament (2024), ‘BARMM approves bill to protect rights of IDPs’, 27 September. Retrieved May 20, 2026. (https://parliament.bangsamoro.gov.ph/2024/09/27/barmm-approves-bill-to-protect-rights-of-idps/).
Bangsamoro Parliament (2026), Bangsamoro Parliament Approves Transitional Justice Law to Address His-torical Injustices. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://parliament.bangsamoro.gov.ph/2026/01/29/bangsamoro-parliament-approves-transitional-justice-law-to-address-historical-injustices/).
Bangsamoro Parliament (n.d.), Historical Development of the Bangsamoro Transition Authority Parliament. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://parliament.bangsamoro.gov.ph/historical-development-of-the-bangsamoro-transition-authority-parliament/).
Climate Change Commission (2011), National Climate Change Action Plan. Retrieved May 21, 2026 (https://niccdies.climate.gov.ph/action-plans/national-climate-change-action-plan).
Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines (2022), National Inquiry on Climate Change Report. Re-trieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/CHRP-NICC-Report-2022.pdf)
Consortium of Bangsamoro Civil Society (CBCS) (2022), Consortium of Bangsamoro Civil Society drafts regional IDP protection bill, 29 April. Retrieved October 16, 2026 (https://bangsamorocivilsociety.org/2022/04/29/consortium-of-bangsamoro-civil-society-drafts-regional-idp-protection-bill/).
De Greiff P. (2015), Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion of Truth, Justice, Reparation and Guarantees of Non-Recurrence, A/HRC/30/42. Retrieved May 10, 2026 (https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g15/202/04/pdf/g1520204.pdf).
Deng F.M. (1998), Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, 11 Feb-ruary. Retrieved April 1, 2026 (https://docs.un.org/E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2).
GMA News (2008), ARMM History and Organization. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/content/112847/armm-history-and-organization/story/).
Gonzalez C.G. (2019), "Climate Justice and Climate Displacement", Wisconsin International Law Journal, 36(2): 366-396.
International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) (n.d.), Displacement and Cli-mate — Terminology, Climate Training Kit Fact Sheet 02. Retrieved May 10, 2026 (https://ctk.climatecentre.org/downloads/modules/training_downloads/2g%20FactSheet%2002%20-%20Displacement%20and%20Climate%20-%20Terminology.pdf).
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC)(2023), 25 Years of Progress on Internal Displacement. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://api.internal-displace-ment.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/IDMC_2023_25_years_of_progress_on_internal_displacement_report.pdf).
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (2026), Global Report on Internal Displacement 2026, Geneva: IDMC.
International Climate Justice Network (2002), Bali Principles of Climate Justice. Retrieved May 15, 2026 (https://www.corpwatch.org/article/bali-principles-climate-justice).
International Court of Justice (ICJ) (2025), Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change, Advisory Opinion, 23 July. Retrieved October 16, 2026. (https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20250723-adv-01-00-en.pdf).
International Organization for Migration (IOM) (2007), Migration and the Environment, Discussion Note MC/INF/288, Geneva: IOM. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1411/files/MC_INF_288.pdf).
International Organization for Migration (2025), Climate Mobility and Displacement, Manila: IOM Philip-pines. Retrieved May 15, 2026 (https://philippines.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1651/files/documents/2025-07/climate-mobility-and-displacement.pdf).
International Organization for Migration (2019), Glossary on Migration, International Migration Law No. 34, Geneva: IOM. Retrieved April 13, 2026 (https://publications.iom.int/books/international-migration-law-ndeg34-glossary-migration).
International Organization for Migration (IOM) (n.d.), Task Force on Displacement: First Phase of Imple-mentation, June 2017 – April 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2026. (Available at: https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1411/files/inline-files/TFD%20Output%20acitivity%20I.1%20Summary.pdf).
International Organization for Migration Environmental Migration Portal (n.d.a), Environmental Migration. Retrieved May 10, 2026 (https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/environmental-migration).
International Organization for Migration Environmental Migration Portal (n.d.b), Task Force on Displace-ment. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/task-force-displacement).
Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Right of Internally Displaced Persons of the Bangsamoro Auton-omous Region Act of 2024 (2025) (https://officialgazette.bangsamoro.gov.ph/2025/09/17/irr-of-baa-no-62/)
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2010), IASC Framework on Durable Solutions for Internally Displaced Persons, Geneva: IASC. Retrieved May 10, 2026 (https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/other/iasc-framework-durable-solutions-internally-displaced-persons).
Institute for Autonomy and Governance (2011), IAG Policy Brief: What Ails ARMM?. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.kas.de/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=e9a70583-733f-142b-5fc2-b43599ddbf60&groupId=252038).
Kälin W. (2008), The Climate Change–Displacement Nexus, Brookings Institution, 16 December. Retrieved September 20, 2026 (https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-climate-change-displacement-nexus/).
Kälin W. (2023), Internal Displacement and the Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192899316.001.0001.
Marawi Siege Victims Compensation Act of 2022 (Republic Act No. 11696) (2022) (Philippines).
McAdam J. (2012), Climate Change, Forced Migration, and International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ministry of Social Services and Development (MSSD) (2025a), MSSD conducts orientation on BARMM IDP Law to the provincial staff of Sulu, 19 August. Retrieved October 16, 2026. (https://mssd.barmm.gov.ph/mssd-conducts-orientation-on-barmm-idp-law-to-the-provincial-staff-of-sulu/)
Ministry of Social Services and Development (MSSD) (2025b), MSSD conducts IPART orientation and pro-filing in Ligawasan SGA, 19 February. Retrieved October 16, 2026. (https://mssd.barmm.gov.ph/mssd-conducts-ipart-orientation-and-profiling-in-ligawasan-sga/)
Ministry of Social Services and Development (MSSD) (2026a), MSSD presents FY 2027 budget proposal to MFBM, focuses bulk of funds on operations and social protection programs, 16 July. Retrieved October 16, 2026. (https://mssd.barmm.gov.ph/mssd-presents-fy-2027-budget-proposal-to-mfbm-focuses-bulk-of-funds-on-operations-and-social-protection-programs/).
Ministry of Social Services and Development (MSSD) (2026b), Para-social workers in Lanao del Sur un-dergo IPART orientation, 3 September. Retrieved October 16, 2026. (https://mssd.barmm.gov.ph/para-social-workers-in-lanao-del-sur-undergo-ipart-orientation/).
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (2025), Memorandum Circular No. 1 (Philip-pines).
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (n.d.), Transitional Justice. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.ohchr.org/en/transitional-justice).
Oppenheimer M. et al. (2019), "Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low-Lying Islands, Coasts and Com-munities", in H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama and N.M. Weyer (eds), Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, Geneva: IPCC, 321–445. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-4-sea-level-rise/).
Organic Law for the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BOL) (Republic Act No. 11054) (2018) (Philippines).
Philippine Daily Inquirer (2025), Maguindanao del Sur Floods Bring Misery to 38,000 Residents. Retrieved May 10, 2026 (https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/2130218/maguindanao-del-sur-floods-bring-misery-to-38000-residents).
Philippine Daily Inquirer (2026), Super El Niño Could Hit Regions Differently, Study Warns. Retrieved May 28, 2026 (https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/2234585/super-el-nino-could-hit-regions-differently-study-warns).
Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010 (Republic Act No. 10121) (2010) (Philip-pines).
Rappler (2013), Aquino Vetoes Internally Displaced Persons Bill. Retrieved May 29, 2026 (https://www.rappler.com/philippines/30200-aquino-vetoes-internally-displaced-persons-bill/).
Rappler (2026), Nine Years Displaced: Marawi Siege Survivors Remain in Limbo. Retrieved May 30, 2026 (https://www.rappler.com/philippines/mindanao/watch-nine-years-displaced-marawi-bakwits/).
Rights of Internally Displaced Persons of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region Act of 2024 (IDP Act) (Bangsamoro Autonomy Act No. 62) (2024)
Salvioli F. (2023) International legal standards underpinning the pillars of transitional justice. UN Doc. A/HRC/54/24. Retrieved May 15, 2026 (https://docs.un.org/A/HRC/54/24).
Seneviratne S.I., X. Zhang, M. Adnan, W. Badi, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, S. Ghosh, I. Iskandar, J. Kossin, S. Lewis, F. Otto, I. Pinto, M. Satoh, S.M. Vicente-Serrano, M. Wehner and B. Zhou (2021), “Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate”, in V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu and B. Zhou (eds), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergov-ernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1513–1766. Retrieved May 21, 2026 (https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.013).
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) (n.d.), Transitional Justice and Reconcilia-tion. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://cdn.sida.se/app/uploads/2020/12/01125338/transitional-justice-and-reconciliation.pdf).
South Upi Municipal Government (2023), South Upi Protection of Internally Displaced Persons Ordinance, Ordinance No. 2023-24. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.refworld.org/legal/decreees/natlegbod/2023/en/149350).
Teitel R. (2003), “Transitional Justice Genealogy”, Harvard Human Rights Journal, 16: 69–94.
UNFCCC Task Force on Displacement (2018), Output on the Way Forward, WIM TFD I.1. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/20180917%20WIM%20TFD%20I.1%20Output%20final.pdf).
United Nations (2015), Action Agenda on Internal Displacement. Retrieved May 21, 2026 (https://www.un.org/en/content/action-agenda-on-internal-displacement/assets/pdf/Action-Agenda-on-Internal-Displacement_EN.pdf).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2011), The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, Decision 1/CP.16. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1411/files/07a01.pdf).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2015), Adoption of the Paris Agreement, Deci-sion 1/CP.21, FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/10a01.pdf).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Philippines (n.d.), Marawi Crisis: Protection Cluster. Re-trieved May 27, 2026 (https://www.unhcr.org/ph/protection-cluster/marawi-crisis).
United Nations Secretary-General (2004), The Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-Conflict Societies, S/2004/616. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/PCS%20S%202004%20616.pdf).
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2026), Philippines Mindanao Dis-placement Snapshot as of 24 April 2026. Retrieved May 20, 2026 (https://www.unocha.org/publications/report/philippines/philippines-mindanao-displacement-snapshot-24-april-2026).
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 PARTECIPAZIONE E CONFLITTO
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with PACO agree to the Creative Commons Attribution-Non commercial-Share alike 4.0 Italian License
Copyrights of each article are hold by the University of Salento.
PACO allows author(s) to retain publishing rights under permission of the Editorial Staff. But Authors are requested to always indicate that the first version of the article has been published in "Partecipazione e conflitto".
